Notes on EDU 05.13 Theoretical Bases of Teaching Social Science.

UNIT.1

INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE

                      Social science is a major category of academic discipline, concerned with society and the relationship among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered as ” social science”. The main social sciences included Economics, Political Science, Geography, history and Sociology.

Definition:

Beard defines social science as a “body of knowledge and thoughts pertaining to human affairs as distinguished from sticks and stones, stars and physical objects

Nature and scope of social science

·         A unique combination of various disciplines

·         A study of human relationships

·         A study of man’s development through ages

·         A realistic course of study

·         It forms an important part of the core curriculum

·         It includes commitment to action

·         Aims at preparing the learner for wholesome social living

Evaluation of social science as a subject

Social science is gathering knowledge through scientific method. It is facing fact of change from objective based to process based.

·         Evaluation of subject matter

·         Evaluation of gathering knowledge

·         Evaluation of transaction

·         Evaluation of methodology

·         Evaluation of material changes.

Need and significance of teaching social science in the present context

·         Providing education for effective citizenships

·         Helping in the all round development of the personality

·         Developing awareness about the problems of the society

·         Providing helpful in developmental projects of the society

·         Deals human development and his psycho-social and cultural development of an individual

·         It has strong connection with our regular social life

·         Enable an individual to live successfully and truthfully in the social context

·         Provides smooth adaptability with the environment

Social studies as a core subject and its relation to other core subjects

           Core subject is a subject that should have to learn. In school level all subjects are core subjects except language. Core curriculum seeks to provide the irreducible minimum regarded as necessary for everyone to be able to live satisfactorily in a modern society. It prepares students for living, not to make a living. Common learning and experiences are emphasized in the core curriculum to make it possible for the democratic way of living.

              Social science is a core  subject drawing functional material from various subject fields its subject matter is “man and his environment” it is to be taught as a compulsory subject up to the secondary school stage because this is the final stage of education for the majority of students.

               Language and social science go hand in hand. While social studies deal with man and society, language provides man with a vehicle of expression and communication. While social studies contain a record of the deeds of men, literature is the record feelings, emotions imagination and the thought of man. Social studies are very much reinforced by language.             The curriculum of sciences and social studies are, in fact, interdependent. The life and work of eminent scientists of the world are as much a part of social studies curriculum. In following ways social studies related with mathematics.

1.      Use of quantification in society

2.      Meeting basic needs through mathematics

3.      Use of mathematics in social life

4.      Use in household

Social studies vs. social sciences

     Social science is a generic term covering the scientific study of man. Social studies is a field of study which deals with the man and his environment. Its content is drawn from several social sciences.

Similarities

·         Shares common body of content

·         Both are related to society and have same aims and objectives

·         In both centre of focus is man’s relationship to man and to his environment

·         Both emphasis on inculcating good qualities

·         Both helps to understand the various aspects of the society and utilize them

Differences

·         Social sciences are those areas of knowledge dealing with man and society in the development of civilization. Social studies drawn its content from social sciences

·         The focus and emphasis of both are different

·         Social sciences represent an adult approach, while the social studies represents a child approach

·         Social sciences are the theory part  of human affairs while social studies are the practical part of human affairs

·         Social sciences are far larger than social studies

·         In social science social utility is the primary objective. In social studies instructional utility is the primary objective

UNIT.2

AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND VALUES OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES

                                              Social science is a major category of academic discipline, concerned with society and the relationship among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered as ” social science”. The main social sciences included Economics, Political Science, Geography, history and Sociology. The teaching of social sciences has many aims. It has given as follows;

General aims

·         Acquiring knowledge

·         The development of reasoning power and critical judgement

·         Training in independent study

·         Formulation of habits and skills

·         Training in desirable patterns of conduct

Aims of teaching SS at secondary stage

        Secondary stage students are adolescence. It is considered as problem age. So teaching of social science to this them is very important. The main aims of teaching social sciences in the secondary stage are given as;

·         Inculcating social values, personal values, constitutional values…

·         Makes responsible citizenship

·         Citizenship training

·         Students get aware of national integration

·         Socialization

·         International understanding

·         Socio-familiar responsibilities

·         Cultural preservation, transmission and transformation.

Objectives of teaching History, Geography, Economics and Political Science

History:

·         To inculcate attitudes of historical-mindedness and scientific and such other attitudes as will aid in training for citizenship

·         To develop cultural interest

·         To accumulate certain definite knowledge of the past

·         To attain noble ideals  and high concepts of loyal to one’s self and to one’s fellow men by teaching the cost of the elements of civilization during the past

Geography:

·         To identify the varieties in the distribution of physical and economic phenomena over the surface of the earth

·         To analyze the way of life of the people all over the world

·         To develop an appreciation of interdependence of various geographical regions

Economics:

·         To teach modern economic principles by observation and through understanding of current practices

·         To apply sound economic theories to everyday life

·         To develop a thorough appreciation of economic problems and a clear insight by the pupil into the social and economic environment

Political science:

·         To provide the information about social arrangement to maintain peace and order

·         To develop democratic values

·         To make ability to analyze political system and behavior

Conceptual, inquiry, skill and affective objectives of social science

                    Objectives of the social science range from broad goals for the total program to specific instructional objectives in teaching plans. The four main types are;

Conceptual:

              Conceptual outcomes are being defined In terms of concepts, themes and generalizations they may be developed in the social science.

·         Roles, interaction and interdependence of individuals at home, in the community in state and nation

·         Functions of such institutions

·         Contribution of men and groups to changing cultural heritage

·         Environmental problems and concerns, causes and effects of pollution and steps to ensure environment

Inquiry:

             To develop competence in using modes, methods and processes of inquiry, including the ability to:

·         Use such inquiry processes as recalling, observing, comparing, classifying, interpreting, defining, generalizing, synthesizing, inferring, predicting, hypothesizing and evaluating.

·         Make plans for investigating topics and problems, collecting data, organizing and processing data, deriving conclusions and assessing outcomes and procedures of inquiry.

Skill:

·         Social skill

·         Study skill and work habits

·         Group work skills

·         Intellectual skills

Affective:

        To identify, describe and demonstrate in individual behavior and group activities, values and feelings of individuals who are possessing such qualities like open mind, responsible…..

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

                The word Taxonomy has derived from the Greek word Taxis which means a system of classification. Bloom and his associates set up following three domains of educational objectives.

Cognitive domain:

                    It is concerned with the intellectual aspect of internal process or cognition. The different categories of instructional objectives in this domain are;

·         Knowledge: related with the acquisition of different types of information received by the learner as part of instruction

·         Comprehension: result of mental process of the learner which enables to transform the different forms of information acquired to a more comprehensive format

·         Application: the learner applies knowledge that has been acquired and comprehended into new and similar situations.

·         Analysis: it is an intellectual process by which the learner is able to analyze the acquired comprehended and applied knowledge into its constituent parts or elements

·         Synthesis: the mental ability of the learner to integrate the acquired, comprehended, applied and analyzed knowledge information to a comprehensive whole

·         Evaluation: Judgment  about a value of a material and methods for given purposes

Affective domain:

                        Objectives which emphasize feelings, emotion …… The different categories of instructional objectives in this domain are;

·         Receiving: awareness, willingness to respond and attention

·         Responding: acquaintance in responding, willingness to respond and satisfaction in response

·         Valuing: acceptance of value, performance for a value, commitment…

·         Organizations: conceptualization of value, organization of value system

·         Characterization: generalized set

Psycho-motor domain:

                    Related with purposive actions. The different categories of instructional objectives in this domain are;

·         Perception: sensory simulation

·         Set: mental and physical readiness

·         Guided Reponses: overt behavioral act of an individual under the guidance of the instructor

·         Mechanism: micro analysis in which each step is properly examined

·         Complex overt response

·         Adaptation

Specification: The specified overt behavior of learner is called specification

Revised Boom’s taxonomy

                      RBT was developed by Anderson and Krathwohl. Bloom’s taxonomy is based on objective based learning while RBT is based on learning of process or content. RBT is based on knowledge dimension (factual, conceptual and Meta cognitive) and process dimension (procedural acquisition of knowledge).

In each knowledge dimension learning can be taken place through six procedures. They are:

·         Remembering

·         Understanding

·         Applying

·         Analyzing

·         Evaluating

·         Creating

Features:

·         Based process based learning

·         The procedural dimensions are titled in action verb

·         The level synthesis is avoided

·         The highest level is creating

Values of teaching SS

·         Social sensibility

·         Acquires social experiences

·         Develop Problem solving ability

·         Co-operative thinking

·         Helping mentality

·         Adjustability

·         Personal values

·         Thinking and reasoning

·         Integrated thinking

·         Democratic sense

·         Secular sense

·         Patriotic sense

UNIT.3

SOCIAL SCIENCE CURRICULUM

                                 In education, a curriculum  is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. The word "curriculum" began as a Latin word which means "a race" or "the course of a race" (which in turn derives from the verb currere meaning "to run/to proceed").

Definition:

According to Alberty A and Alberty E, Curriculum is the some total of student activities which the school sponsors for the purpose

W.Robert Beck and W.Walter Cook define curriculum as “the sum of the educational experiences that children have in school

Curriculum, syllabus and textbook

curriculum	syllabus
broad	narrow
explains all the process, activities and life of the course	Discusses the subject and its content
flexible	rigid
Able to manipulate	Difficult to manipulate

Text book:

                A textbook or course book is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions. Schoolbooks are textbooks and other books used in schools. Although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books.

Principles of curriculum construction

·         Principle of child centeredness

·         Curriculum should provide a fullness of experiences for children

·         It should be dynamic

·         It should be related with everyday life

·         It must take into account the economic aspect of life of the people to whom and educational institution belongs

·         It should be real and rationalistic

·         It should emphasize on learning to live  rather than living to learn

·         It should help in reserving and transmitting our cultural tradition

·         Flexibility

·         Use of technological device

·         Well integration

Fusion, integration and correlation in SS curriculum

                       Fusion means very close joining of things. In curriculum construction, it means close joining of content matters of different subject together.

in fusion, SS curriculum gathers its content from various disciplines. All this content put together with a single identity to perform as a perfect curriculum.

         Integration means mix freely with other groups in a society. In curriculum construction, it means desirable mixing of different subjects to construct the SS curriculum. Through integration reciprocal contact between subject content is occurring. Integration helps broad way of curriculum construction. Integrated curriculum may be flexible curriculum

        Correlation means mutual relationship or connection between two or more subjects. It is a link or association or tie up.

             

All subjects are related. Fusion, integration and correlation are related.

Organizing SS curriculum

Once the content and learning experiences are identified and selected, the next step in the construction of SS curriculum is to organize the content. There are several approaches to organize curriculum. They are;

Topical approach:

                A curriculum construction based on blend of topics is called topical approach. The content in the curriculum will be arranged topic by topic. It is the type of juxtaposition.

Features:

·         Easy to construct

·         Provides through information

·         Organizes all related contents in one topic

·         Organizes the content according to the level of learners

Spiral approach:

               It means continues connection of content from lower level to upper level.

1. The spiral approach is a technique often used in teaching where first the basic facts of a subject are learned, without worrying about details. Then as learning progresses, more and more details are introduced, while at the same time they are related to the basics which are reemphasized many times to help enter them into long-term memory.
2. . Basic idea behind spiral progression approach - to expose the learners to a wide variety of concepts/topics, skills and attitudes that are deemed of “continual concern of everyone “until they are mastered.
3. . A spiral curriculum design is one in which “key concepts are presented repeatedly throughout the curriculum, but with deepening layers of complexity.”

Unit approach:

              The curriculum designed based on the content units. One content unit may include five or more sub content units or lessons. This approach helps teachers to provide easy method of curriculum transaction.

Approaches to curriculum construction

Grass root approach:

           All part and practice of curriculum are framed by the teacher and that will go to the administration. It is the curriculum construction from lower level to upper level. Here, grass root of educational system is teacher. They will design or construct the curriculum besed on their experiences from society and with students. In this approach the content, the method of transaction, activities and mode of transaction are made of teachers.

Administrative approach:

            Administrative approach in curriculum means an approach of framing curriculum designed by administration. It is a centralized approach. The design, the pattern, the content, the method and strategy and all other aspects of curriculum are determined by administration. It is a curriculum making from up to down. It is comparatively rigid and less openness. Determining factor is authority.

Demonstrative approach:

              Demonstrative means” to show “how something works to done. It is broad and natural. In this approach the social life of the learners exactly taking as curriculum for the schooling. The school system is almost a part of the social life (de- schooling system)

Modern trends in SS curriculum

·         Techno centered teaching

·         Process centered education

·         Problem- posed learning

·         Progressive education

·         Computerized instruction

·         Critical pedagogy(Paulo Frier)

·         Learning by doing

Evaluation:

            it is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.

There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. Educational institutions usually require evaluation data to demonstrate effectiveness to funders and other stakeholders, and to provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes. Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

TYPES OF EVALUATION:
Formative evaluation,
Evaluation done prior to any program,
Objective, Evaluation includes objective types of tests.
Subjective evaluation test items are mostly descriptive.
Summative evaluation
“According to NCERT Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which an objective is being attained, the effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the class room and how well the goals of education have been accomplished”.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION PROGRAMME:
STEPS IN EVALUATION:
Objective
Learning experience
Evaluation techniques
1) Grading students.
2) Maintaining standards.
3) To check effectiveness of the school progrmme and the teacher’s performance.
4) To give appropriate guidance to students’.
5) To motivate students.
6) To improve teaching programme.
7) To modify curriculum.
8) To modify teaching methods

.UNIT.4

METHOD AND MODELS OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES

1 LECTURE METHOD

               It  is the oldest procedure of teaching. It is widely used in schools and colleges. It is a good method its cover a wide topic at heights level of college or secondary schools and higher secondary classes but its success depends on the personality and ability of students.
WHY THIS METHOD SHOULD BE USED?
1 To motivate students.
2 To give an overview of a large topic.
To add supplement the students reading.
To make an importance matters understanding.
To provide background of a topic or to introduce the topic
To help the students to use their time wisely
To explain the major concepts of a lesson
To develop reasoning skill of students
To have a classroom discussion
MERITS OF THE METHOD: To establishes face to face contact. It develops attention span. Students develop listening and note taking skills.
Students can prepare the notes. It is easy method for new teachers.

DEMERITS OF THE METHOD: It is a teacher centered method not very good for SS. It is a monotonous tiring and sometimes it becomes a boring method. It brings a lot of burden and reading to the teacher.
It is not an interactive method.
DISCUSSION METHOD: 

               The word discussion means exchanging views and debate. Here the discussion can be among the group of students as a whole group.
WHERE AND WHEN CAN YOU USE DISCUSSION METHOD?
1 the teacher of S.S. can use this method when he is using a project method.
2 when he has to share information and ideas from a large group.
3 when one needs to solve a problem, or do thinking and analytical activity in the class.
4 when one obtain information and ideas from a large group of students.
5 when one needs to check or evaluate students’ progress.
FORMS OF DISCUSSION: Formal, debate, classroom, informal, panel, symposium.
THE PROCESS OF DISCUSSION:
The process can be different depending upon the type of discussion.
1 the ideas are initiated by the teacher than there is exchange of ideas opinions observations comments etc
2 this is a co-operative learning.

STEPS OF DISCUSSION
1 Preparation:
To make discussion a success the teacher as well as the student must make a careful preparation. The teacher should do in depth reading of the topic. She should do critical reading, should understand the arguments well and know the gist of the lesson.
CONDUCTING DISCUSSION:
In this stage the teacher initiates the discussion. He controls process and keeps the students disciplined and keeps the discussion under control or on the right tract.
MARITS OF DISCUSSION METHOD:
• It is based of differences.
• It emphasizes independent study.
• It develops reasoning.
• It develops study habits.
• It is activity oriented.
• It teaches how to study purposefully.
• It helps the teacher to find leadership quality among students.
• It helps in clarifying ideas, issues etc.
• It creates better understanding of the topic, issues, events, ideas or concepts.
DEMARITS OF DISCUSSION METHOD
• It is time consuming method.
• It needs some training • Why students do not benefit from this activity.
• Sometimes only a few students dominate.
• There can be some necessary argument and can lead to some major problems.

ROLE PLAY AND DRAMATIZATION METHOD: Role playing, socio drama or creative dramas are used to present a specific situation for study and discussion. There is no prepared script. It is unrehearsed, speaking parts are not memorized and minimum properties are used.
Role play is a way of bringing situation from real life into the classroom.
A role in other words, they pretend to be different person.
A situation they pretend to be doing something different both a role $ a situation.
In role play, students improvise the situation is fixed but they make up the exact as they go.
ROLE PLAYS ARE USE TO TEACH
to clarify social values.
to focus attention on a specific central ideas.
to extend vocabulary.
to gain grater insight into the problems of others.
It develops social skills, communication skills and team spirit.
They provide excellent basis for discussion and evaluation.
FOLLOWUP ACTIVITIES AFTER THE ROLE PLAY
Role Play should be followed by discussion about the theme of the role play.
Students can be interviewed about their role.
The audience can say about each role. They can also do the role play by other group of students.

PROJECT METHOD:
STEPS OF PROJECT METHOD:
Project method is a direct outcome of pragmatism, especially of John Dewey’s educational philosophy. Pragmatism believes in reality. It is scientific and empirical. It is based on the principle of learning by doing.
Being influenced by John Dewey, Kilpatrick tried to give project method in 1918. This method is democratic in nature and it emphasizes social skills and team work.
WHAT IS A PROJECT METHOD?
It is a progressive approach of teaching. It is a purposeful act it provides the learner with learning experiences.
Here the teacher acts like a guide assigns the projects to groups of students.’
Each group works on different topics or problems. They work together to prepare the project.
The students work together as a team, they learn by discussing, reading, and exchanging ideas. Then they take the help of a teacher wherever they difficulties or have questions.
The project method covers the content of many different subjects and the teacher tries to integrate the information to the main topic.
This method gives complete freedom and choice to students.
ADVANTAGES OF PROJECT METHOD:
It gives freedom and creativity.
Here the teacher and students both grow.
Students can link the subject to real life.
It motivates students.
DISADVANTAGES OF PROJECT METHOD:
It is expensive method.
It is time consuming.
It needs lots of resources.
Some projects cannot be done at school.
SOURCE METHOD:
There are three types of sources in this method.
1 Material resource: Ideas, machines, weapons etc…..
2 Oral resources: Songs, folk stories, traditions, customs etc...
3 Written and printed resources: Records, reports, letters etc….
Source method is an activity oriented method. It is generally used in social studies subject also.
Generally sources mean a person, books or document or picture or actual objects that can provide information for learning. It is learning directly from the actual sources for examples for social studies they can be- A contract with the bank – or studying the sample of stone collected from the moon or an object found from any ancient place can also be studied. One can also take students to museums to find the objects to study.
ADVANTAGES OF SOURCES METHOD:
It provides direct, firsthand experience.
It develops a sense of reality
It creates motivating and interesting ambience in the class.
It develops skill of data collection, thinking skill and observation skill.
It makes the subject meaningful.

Reflective learning strategies:

                     Reflection is the result of learning. (Return to experience). There are many reflective learning strategies.

Meta cognitive learning strategy:

          Metacognitive strategies refers to methods used to help students understand the way they learn; in other words, it means processes designed for students to 'think' about their 'thinking'.Teachers who use metacognitive strategies can positively impact students who have learning disabilities by helping them to develop an appropriate plan for learning information, which can be memorized and eventually routine. As students become aware of how they learn, they will use these processes to efficiently acquire new information, and consequently, become more of an independent thinker. Below are three metacognitive strategies, which all include related resources, that can be implemented in the classroom:

Think Aloud:Great for reading comprehension and problem solving. Think-aloud help students to consciously monitor and reflect upon what they are learning. This strategy works well when teachers read a story or problem out loud and periodically stop to verbalize their thoughts. This allows students to follow the teacher's thinking process, which gives them the foundation they need for creating their own strategies and processes that can be useful for understanding what they are trying to comprehend.

Checklist, Rubrics and Organizers:Great for solving word problems. These organizational tools support students in the decision-making process because they serve as an aid for planning and self-evaluation. Typically they ask what students know and need to know to arrive at an answer, and emphasize the need to reread the problem and self-check responses.

Explicit Teacher Modeling:Great for math instruction. Explicit teacher modeling helps students understand what is expected of them through a clear example/model of a skill or concept. When a teacher provides a easy to follow procedure for solving a problem, students have a memorable strategy to use for approaching a problem on their own.

 

 

UNIT.5

MODELS OF TEACHING

                     A teaching model is a design of teaching. It is a plan for teaching based on carefully selected psychological theory. A teaching model explains how to transact a content based on the strategies of instruction according to a learning theory. Joyce & Marsha Weil defined teaching model as a pattern or plan that teacher can use to design face to face teaching in classroom or instructional setting and shape instructional material.

Features:

·         Based on one or more psychological theories

·         Instructional design

·         Goal oriented

·         Description of learning environment

Families of Models

Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil have identified four main families of models

1. Information Processing Family

Main Focus: Help students in the mastery  of methods of  inquiry; mastery of academic concepts and facts; development of general  intellectual skills such as the ability to think more logically .

Eg:   Concept Attainment Model

Advance Organizer   Model

Biological Science Inquiry Training Model

Cognitive Development Model

Synetics Model (to develop creativity)

2. Behaviour Systems Family

Main Focus:  To change the behavior of the learner; to transmit culture by teaching skills and knowledge

Eg.  Direct Instruction Model

Contingency Management Model

Mastery Learning

Learning from Simulations

Model to develop the six varieties of performances identified by Gagne

3. Social Family

Main Focus :  To help  students work together to identify and solve problems; to develop skills in human relations,: to become aware of personal and social values

Eg:  Jurisprudential Inquiry Model (learning to think about  social policy)

Cooperative learning

Group Investigation

Role Playing

4. Personal Family

Main Focus: To increase the students’ sense of self-worth; to help students understand  themselves more fully; to help students recognize their emotions and become more aware of the way emotions affect other aspects of their behavior; to help them develop goals for learning; to help students develop plans for increasing their competence ; to increase the students’ creativity and playfulness and to increase the students’ openness to new experience.

Eg: Awareness Training Model

Classroom Meeting Model

Non-directive Teaching Model

Concept Attainment model

What is Concept Attainment?

Concept Attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. It is based on the work of Jerome Bruner. In concept attainment, students figure out the attributes of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. To do so, students compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain those attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment, then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given group or category from non-examples.

What is its purpose?

Concept attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects of content. It engages students into formulating a concept through the use of illustrations, word cards or specimens called examples. Students who catch onto the idea before others are able to resolve the concept and then are invited to suggest their own examples, while other students are still trying to form the concept. For this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom use because all thinking abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. With experience, children become skilled at identifying relationships in the word cards or specimens. With carefully chosen examples, it is possible to use concept attainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects.

Advantages:

helps make connections between what students know and what they will be learning

learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives

learn how to sort out relevant information

extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that concept

students go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition
concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved 

How do I do it?

Steps of Concept Attainment:

Select and define a concept

Select the attributes

Develop positive and negative examples

Introduce the process to the students

Present the examples and list the attributes

Develop a concept definition

Give additional examples

Discuss the process with the class

Evaluate

How can I adapt it?

This activity can be done on the chalkboard, chart paper or overhead projector to a large or small group. It also works well as one-on-one work. Rather than starting with the teacher's concept, use a student's concept. Concept attainment can be used to introduce or conclude a unit of study.

Variations on the Concept Attainment Model

Present all of the positive examples to the students at once and have them determine the essential attributes.

Present all of the positive and negative examples to the students without labeling them as such. Have them group the examples into the two categories and determine the essential attributes.

Have the students define, identify the essential attributes of, and choose positive examples for a concept already learned in class.

Use the model as a group activity.

Assessment and Evaluation Considerations

Have the students:

write the definition from memory.

determine positive and negative examples from a given group.

create their own examples of the concept.

"think aloud"

Write a learning log

Do an oral presentation

Create a web, concept map, flow chart, illustrations, KWL chart, T chart

ADVANCE ORGANISER MODEL

David  Ausubel

An advance organizer is a tool used to introduce the lesson topic and illustrate the relationship between what the students are about to learn and the information they have already learned. They are used during expository instruction, which is the use of an expert to present information in a way that makes it easy for students to make connections from one concept to the next.

By using an advance organizer to link the new information to old information, the new information can     be remembered more easily.

There are three basic purposes of advance organizers.

First, they direct students' attention to what is important in the upcoming lesson.

Second, they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented.

Third, they remind students of relevant information that they already have.

An advance organizer is not a summary or review of a previous lesson. It also doesn't provide a structure for the current lesson. Instead, it provides a structure for student thinking. It acts as a conceptual bridge from the old information to the new information. A person's existing knowledge about a concept is the most important factor in whether new material will be meaningful and how well it can be learned and retained.

Analogies and metaphors are frequently used as advance organizers because they help students recognize that the topic they are beginning to learn is not totally new, but rather can be related to something they are already comfortable with. This not only helps the students better understand the new concept, but it also helps to encourage and motivate students, as it makes them more confident about the material to come. They also help teachers fit the new information into a larger framework or existing schema. They help students understand the governing questions, issues and propositions that are reflected in that hierarchy. If students understand the basic outline of the structure, they are able to fill in the gaps with new and related information as it is presented to them.

ADVANCE ORGANIZER MODEL  

Goal of learning subject matter and improvement of presentational methods of teaching is important.

His theory of meaningful verbal learning deals with three concerns-

* How knowledge(curriculum content) is organized.

* How mind works to process new information(learning).

* How teachers can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present new material to students(instruction).

GOALS AND ASSUMPTIONS

This model helps teacher to organize and convey information as meaningfully and effectively as possibly.

Advance organizers provide concepts and principles to students directly.

This model is designed to strengthen students’ cognitive structure.

Cognitive structure deals with what kind of knowledge of a field is in our mind, how much of it there is, and how well it is organized.

Before presenting new material, existing cognitive structure should be increased by presenting concepts.

Meaningful learning can occur if material is solidly organized and this depends on the learner.

Acc to Ausubel, any subject is a chain of concepts and in our mind also, when we accept these facts that is also settled as a chain in our mind, if new concept is presented as related with the old one.

 Elements of models of teaching:

·         Social system:

                 It means social atmosphere of the classroom. It explains the environment, the structure and the nature of the classroom. (Highly structured, moderately structured and loosely structured)

·         Principle of reaction:

                  It means the rules that should be followed by the teacher to deal with the responses of the students.

·         Support system:

                   It means any supporting item to create a better teaching and learning activities.(Teaching aids, learning aids and atmosphere)

·         Instructional effect:

 Instructional objectives

·         Nurtural effect:

      Attitudinal changes, behavioral changes…..

·         Syntax:

    Set of rules, principles and process that governs the structure of sentences in given language. Here, it means the structure and design of all teaching learning experiences in the classroom. A syntax is a model of teaching included many phases.

Description and lesson transcription

Concept attainment model:

                 This model was developed based on the theory of J.F.Bruner (Discovery learning). It is based on Brunarian hypothesis, ie, fundamentals of any subject can be taught to any individual at any stages of development in an intellectually honest way. Learning is the result of individual’s discovery of the concept. It is the stage associated task, but effective learning is possible on any concept at any stage. CAM needs a semi democratic social system.

Syntax:

Phase 1:      Presentation of data and identification of concept

Phase 2:      Testing attainment of the concept

Phase 3:      Analyzing thinking strategies 

Exemplars: they are the examples (yes and no examples)

Advance organizer model:

                 This model was developed based on the theory of David Ausubel (Receptive learning theory or meaning full learning theory). According to him, meaning full verbal learning is the acquisition of ideas that are linked to other ideas. It takes place by the interaction between the new concept (subsumed) and the more inclusive concept (subsume) which are already learned. The process of linking the subsumed to the subsume is known as subsumption. It is taking place through two methods: progressive differentiation and integrative reconciliation

Syntax:

Phase 1:   presentation of advance organizer

Phase 2:   presentation of the learning material

Phase 3:  strengthening cognitive structure

Group investigation model:

                  This model is based on theories of John Dewey and Herbert Thelen. This model gives importance to learning through inquiries. This is a cooperative learning method. Students are forming social groups and in the group they suggest, inquire and discuss the content to be learned. GIM is gathering knowledge through inquiry in students’ group by cooperative attempts.

Syntax:

Phase 1:  students encounter puzzling situation

Phase 2:  students explore relations to the situation

Phase 3:  formulate learning task and organize for learning

Phase 4:  group study

Phase 5:  analyze progress and process

Phase 6:  recycling of activity and review of learning task

Jurisprudential inquiry training model:

                This model is developed based on the theory of Donald Oliver and Johns Shaver. It provides a systematic thinking on contemporary issues. It is a part of citizenship training. This model provides awareness on situation of the society. It is a discussion oriented model. Through this model, teacher can develop a framework of values and decision on problems.

Syntax:

Phase 1:  orientation to the issues or cases

Phase 2:  identifying the issue

Phase 3:  taking positions

Phase 4:  exploring

Phase 5:  refining and qualifying the position

Phase 6:  testing the assumption behind the qualified position